A lacto-vegetarian thali from Indian state of Maharashtra
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Diet in Hinduism signifies the diverse traditions found across the Indian subcontinent. Hindu scriptures promote a vegetarian dietary ideal based on the concept of ahimsa—non-violence and compassion towards all beings.[1] According to a Pew Research Center survey, 44% of Hindus say they are vegetarian.[2]

History

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By mid-1st millennium BCE, all three major Indian religions – Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism – were championing non-violence as an ethical value, and something that affected one's rebirth. By about 200 CE, food and feasting on animal slaughter were widely considered as a form of violence against life forms, and became a religious and social taboo.[3][4]

Ralph Fitch, a merchant from London and one of the earliest English travellers to India wrote a letter home in 1580 stating:

"They have a very strange order among them ... They eat no flesh, but live by roots and rice and milk."[5]

Diet in Hindu scriptures and texts

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Vegetarianism in ancient India
In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink.

— Faxian, Chinese pilgrim to India (4th/5th century CE)[6]

The Vedas

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Evidence from the Vedas suggests the diet of the Vedic people consisted of cereals, initially barley but later dominated by rice, pulses such as māsha (urad), mudga (moong), and masūra (masoor), vegetables such as lotus roots, lotus stem, bottle gourd and milk products, mainly of cows, but also of buffaloes and goats.[7] The Vedas describe animals including bulls, horses, rams and goats being sacrificed and eaten.[8] Although cows held an elevated position in the Vedas,[9] barren cows were also sacrificed. Even then, the word aghnyā ('not to be eaten', 'inviolable') is used for cows multiple times, with some Rigvedic composers considering the whole bovine species, both cows and bulls, inviolable.[8]

Steven J. Rosen suggests that flesh might have been eaten only as part of ritual sacrifices and not otherwise.[10] Acts of animal sacrifice were not fully accepted since there were signs of unease and tension owing to the 'gory brutality of sacrificial butchery' dating back to as early as the older Vedas.[11] The earliest reference to the idea of ahimsa or non-violence to animals (pashu-ahimsa) in any literature, apparently in a moral sense, is found in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda (KapS 31.11), written about the 8th century BCE.[12] The Shatapatha Brahmana contains one of the earliest statements against eating flesh, and the Chāndogya Upaniṣad, has an injunction against killing 'all living entities'. Injunctions against flesh-eating also appear in the Dharmasutras.[13]

Dharmaśāstras

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According to Kane, one who is about to eat food should greet the food when it is served to him, should honour it, never speak ill, and never find fault in it.[14][15]

The Dharmasastra literature, states Patrick Olivelle, admonishes "people not to cook for themselves alone", offer it to the gods, to forefathers, to fellow human beings as hospitality and as alms to the monks and needy.[14] Olivelle claims all living beings are interdependent in matters of food and thus food must be respected, worshipped and taken with care.[14] Olivelle states that the Shastras recommend that when a person sees food, he should fold his hands, bow to it, and say a prayer of thanks.[14]

The reverence for food reaches a state of extreme in the renouncer or monk traditions in Hinduism.[14] The Hindu tradition views procurement and preparation of food as necessarily a violent process, where other life forms and nature are disturbed, in part destroyed, changed and reformulated into something edible and palatable. The mendicants (sannyasin, ascetics) avoid being the initiator of this process, and therefore depend entirely on begging for food that is left over of householders.[14] In pursuit of their spiritual beliefs, states Olivelle, the "mendicants eat other people's left overs".[14] If they cannot find left overs, they seek fallen fruit or seeds left in field after harvest.[14]

The forest hermits of Hinduism, on the other hand, do not beg for left overs.[14] Their food is wild and uncultivated. Their diet would consist mainly of fruits, roots, leaves, and anything that grows naturally in the forest.[14] They avoided stepping on plowed land, lest they hurt a seedling. They attempted to live a life that minimizes, preferably eliminates, the possibility of harm to any life form.[14]

Manusmriti

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One can never obtain meat without causing injury to living beings... he should, therefore, abstain from meat. Reflecting on how meat is obtained and on how embodied creatures are tied up and killed, he should quit eating any kind of meat... The man who authorises, the man who butchers, the man who slaughters, the man who buys or sells, the man who cooks, the man who serves, and the man who eats – these are all killers. There is no greater sinner than a man who, outside of an offering to gods or ancestors, wants to make his own flesh thrive at the expense of someone else's.

— Manusmriti, 5.48-5.52, translated by Patrick Olivelle[16]

Manusmriti's discussion on flesh-eating contains 25 verses condemning the consumption of flesh, bracketed by 3 verses defending the practice in the context of Vedic sacrifices.[17] Commentators starting with Medhātithi interpret the verses to mean that flesh-eating is prohibited generally, and only permitted in the presence of mitigating circumstances, such as danger to life.[18]

Mahabharata

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The Mahabharata contains numerous stories glorifying non-violence towards animals and has some of the strongest statements against slaughter of animals—three chapters of the epic are dedicated to the evils of flesh-eating. Bhishma declares compassion to be the highest religious principle, and compares eating of animal flesh to eating the flesh of one's son. Nominally acknowledging Manu's authorisation of flesh-eating in sacrificial context, Bhisma explains to Yudhishthira that "one who abstains from doing so acquires the same merit as that accrued from the performance of even a horse sacrifice" and that "those desirous of heaven perform sacrifice with seeds instead of animals". It is stated in Mahabharata that animal sacrifices were introduced only when people began to resort to violence in the treta yuga, a less pure and compassionate age, and were not present in the satya yuga, 'the golden age'.[19]

Tirukkuṛaḷ

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The Tirukkuṛaḷ, another ancient Indian secular text of Hindu or Jain origin, emphasizes ahimsa and insists on moral vegetarianism or veganism.[20]: 101  Originally written in the South Indian language of Tamil, the text states moderate diet as a virtuous lifestyle and criticizes "non-vegetarianism" in its Pulaan Maruthal (abstinence from flesh or meat) chapter, through verses 251 through 260.[21][22][23] Verse 251, for instance, questions "how can one be possessed of kindness, who, to increase his own flesh, eats the flesh of other creatures." It also says that "the wise, who are devoid of mental delusions, do not eat the severed body of other creatures" (verse 258), suggesting that "flesh is nothing but the despicable wound of a mangled body" (verse 257). It continues to say that not eating flesh is a practice more sacred than the most sacred religious practices ever known (verse 259) and that only those who refrain from killing and eating the kill are worthy of veneration (verse 260). This text, written before 400 CE, and sometimes called the Tamil Veda, discusses eating habits and its role in a healthy life (Mitahara), dedicating Chapter 95 of Book II to it.[24] The Tirukkuṛaḷ states in verses 943 through 945, "eat in moderation, when you feel hungry, foods that are agreeable to your body, refraining from foods that your body finds disagreeable". Valluvar also emphasizes overeating has ill effects on health, in verse 946, as "the pleasures of health abide in the man who eats moderately. The pains of disease dwell with him who eats excessively."[24][25][26][27]

Puranas

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The Puranic texts fiercely oppose violence against animals in many places "despite following the pattern of being constrained by the Vedic imperative to nominally accept it in sacrificial contexts". The most important Puranic text, the Bhagavata Purana goes farthest in repudiating animal sacrifice—refraining from harming all living beings is considered the highest dharma. The text states that the sin of harming animals cannot be washed away by performing "sham sacrifices", just as "mud cannot be washed away by mud". It graphically presents the horrific karmic reactions accrued from the performance of animal sacrifices—those who mercilessly cook animals and birds go to kumbhipaka and are fried in boiling oil and those who perform sham sacrifices are themselves cut to pieces in viśasana hell. The Skanda Purana states that the sages were dismayed by animal sacrifice and considered it against dharma, claiming that sacrifice is supposed to be performed with grains and milk. It narrates that animal sacrifice was only permitted to feed the population during a famine, yet the sages did not slaughter animals even as they died of starvation. The Matsya Purana contains a dialogue between sages who disapprove of violence against animals, preferring rites involving oblations of fruits and vegetables. The text states that the negative karma accrued from violence against animals far outweighs any benefits.[28]

Diet and caste

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A distinction traditionally exists between vegetarian and non-vegetarian castes; while Brahmins and merchant castes were usually vegetarian, dominant castes that held a monopoly on power, such as Rajputs, tended to be non-vegetarian. A vegetarian diet was considered ritually purer, whereas a non-vegetarian diet was seen as necessary for the exercise of power through force.[29]

Sanskritisation

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M. N. Srinivas and other subsequent authors developed the idea of Sanskritisation, arguing that marginalised individuals and communities adopt vegetarianism in order to gain prestige or improve their status in the caste hierarchy.[30] Amit Desai criticises this framework as a "misreading of the significance of vegetarianism result[ing] from a disengagement from the view of the subaltern".[31]

Modern Hindu diet

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According to a 2021 Pew Research Center survey, 44% of Hindus say they are vegetarian, and another 39% restrict their consumption of flesh in some way.[2]

Lacto-vegetarian diet

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Main article: Lacto vegetarianism
A Hindu, lacto-vegetarian meal served on a banana leaf

Vegetarianism is a dietary ideal among many Hindus, based on the concept of ahimsa—non-violence and compassion towards all beings.[1] It is also considered sattvic, associated with qualities such as goodness, balance, and serenity that are conducive to spiritual progress.[32][33]

Lacto-vegetarianism is favoured by many Hindus; the diet includes milk-based foods and all non-animal derived foods, but excludes meat and eggs.[34] Reasons for adopting such a diet include the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals,[35] the intention to offer only vegetarian food to a Hindu's preferred deity and then to receive it back as prasad, and the conviction that non-vegetarian food is detrimental for the mind and for spiritual development.[32][36]

A typical modern urban Hindu lacto-vegetarian meal is based on a combination of grains such as rice and wheat, legumes, green vegetables, and dairy products.[37] Depending on the geographical region, the staples may also include millet-based flatbreads. Fat derived from slaughtered animals is avoided.[38]

A number of Hindus, particularly those following the Vaishnava tradition, refrain from eating onions and garlic, either totally or during the Chaturmasya period (roughly July to November of the Gregorian calendar).[39] In Maharashtra, some Hindu families do not eat any eggplant preparations during this period either.[40] Followers of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON, colloquially known as the Hare Krishnas) abstain from meat, fish, and fowl. Members of the related Pushtimargi sect also avoid certain vegetables such as onion, mushrooms, and garlic out of the belief that these are tamasic (producing dullness, lethargy, and inertia).[38][41] The mainly Gujarati Swaminarayan movement staunchly adheres to a diet devoid of meat, eggs, seafood, onions, and garlic.[42]

Non-vegetarian diet

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Main article: Non-vegetarian
Further information: Jhatka
Machher Jhol is a spicy fish stew, notably in Bengali and Odia cuisines in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent.

A significant portion of Hindus are non-vegetarians,[43] although even those who identify as non-vegetarian eat very little meat. India has significantly lower meat consumption than other regions of the world.[44] Non-vegetarian Indians mostly prefer poultry, fish, other seafood, goat, and sheep as their sources of meat.[45] In Eastern and coastal south-western regions of India, fish and seafood are the staple of most of the local communities.[46][47] As cows are considered sacred, many Hindus avoid eating the flesh of cows, and view this restriction as essential; in the Pew Research Center survey, 72% of Hindus said that someone who does not follow it cannot be a Hindu.[2]

Prasāda and Naivedya

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Prasada offered during Puja ceremony at a home in West Bengal, India

A material offering to a deity is called naivedya, 'offering of food', it is tasted by the deity and becomes bhoga, 'tasted', and the food is then returned as a gift and distributed among the devotees as prasāda; these terms are often used interchangeably.[48] Vaiṣṇava and Śaiva offerings are typically vegetarian, whereas some Śākta practices include non-vegetarian offerings, involving animal sacrifices.[49]

Diet on Hindu festivals and religious observations

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Hindu fasting day lunch menu

The Hindu calendar has many festivals and religious observations, and dishes specific to that festival are prepared.[50][51]

Festival dishes

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Hindus prepare special dishes for different festivals. Kheer and Halwa are two desserts popular for Diwali. Puran poli and Gujia are prepared for Holi in different parts of India.[52][53]

Diet on fasting days

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Hindu people fast on certain days such as Ekadashi, in honour of Vishnu or his avatars: Chaturthi in honour of Ganesha, Pradosha in honour of Shiva and Parvati, Monday in honour of Shiva, Saturday in honour of Hanuman or Shani, Tuesday in honour of Hanuman, as well as Kali, Parvati, Kartikeya, and Ganesha, Sunday in honour of Surya, Thursday in honour of Vishnu or his avatars, Dattatreya, and Brihaspati, Wednesday in honour of Krishna, Vithoba, Ganesha and Budha and Friday in honour of Mahadevi, Durga, Kali, Mariamman, Lakshmi, Sita, Radha, Rukmini, Saraswati, and Santoshi Mata.[54][55][56] Only certain kinds of food are allowed to be eaten during the fasting period. These include milk and other dairy products such as curd, fruit and starchy Western food items such as sago,[57] potatoes,[58] purple-red sweet potatoes, amaranth seeds,[59] nuts and shama millet.[60] Popular fasting dishes include Farari chevdo, Sabudana Khichadi or peanut soup.[61]

See also

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References

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Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Sen 2014, p. 1168.
  2. ^ a b c Corichi, Manolo (8 July 2021). "Eight-in-ten Indians limit meat in their diets, and four-in-ten consider themselves vegetarian". Pew Research Center.
  3. ^ Lisa Kemmerer (2011). Animals and World Religions. Oxford University Press. pp. 59–68 (Hinduism), pp. 100–110 (Buddhism). ISBN 978-0-19-979076-0.
  4. ^ Marvin Harris (1990), India's sacred cow Archived 2017-03-29 at the Wayback Machine, Anthropology: contemporary perspectives, 6th edition, Editors: Phillip Whitten & David Hunter, Scott Foresman, ISBN 0-673-52074-9, pages 201–204
  5. ^ French, Patrick (8 September 2011). "Part I". Liberty or Death: India's Journey to Independence and Division. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780241950418. Retrieved 13 November 2013.
  6. ^ Sen 2014, p. 1165.
  7. ^ Achaya 1994, p. 31–35.
  8. ^ a b Achaya 1994, p. 53–55.
  9. ^ Staples 2020, p. 38–40.
  10. ^ Rosen 2020, p. 409–410.
  11. ^ Bryant 2006, p. 195–196.
  12. ^ Tähtinen, Unto (1976). Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition. London. pp. 2–3 (English translation: Schmidt p. 631). ISBN 0-09-123340-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  13. ^ Bryant 2006, p. 196–197.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Patrick Olivelle (1991). "From feast to fast: food and the Indian Ascetic". In Gerrit Jan Meulenbeld; Julia Leslie (eds.). Medical Literature from India, Sri Lanka, and Tibet. BRILL. pp. 17–36. ISBN 978-9004095229.
  15. ^ Kane, History of the Dharmaśāstras Vol. 2, p. 762
  16. ^ Manu; Olivelle, Suman; Manu; Manu (2005). Olivelle, Patrick (ed.). Manu's code of law: a critical edition and translation of the Mānava-Dharmásāstra. South Asia research. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. pp. 139–141. ISBN 978-0-19-517146-4.
  17. ^ Sen 2014, p. 1523–1524."
  18. ^ Framarin 2014, p. 203.
  19. ^ Bryant 2006, p. 198–199.
  20. ^ Dharani, D. (2018). "Medicine in Thirukkural, The Universal Veda of Tamil Literature". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 79 (2018–19): 101–108. JSTOR 26906235.
  21. ^ Kamil Zvelebil (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India. BRILL Academic. pp. 156–157. ISBN 90-04-03591-5.
  22. ^ Krishna, Nanditha (2017). Hinduism and Nature. New Delhi: Penguin Random House. p. 264. ISBN 978-93-8732-654-5.
  23. ^ Meenakshi Sundaram, T. P. (1957). "Vegetarianism in Tamil Literature". 15th World Vegetarian Congress 1957. International Vegetarian Union (IVU). Retrieved 17 April 2022.
  24. ^ a b Tirukkuṛaḷ see Chapter 95, Book 7
  25. ^ Tirukkuṛaḷ Translated by V.V.R. Aiyar, Tirupparaithurai: Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam (1998)
  26. ^ Sundaram, P. S. (1990). Tiruvalluvar Kural. Gurgaon: Penguin. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-14-400009-8.
  27. ^ "Russell Simmons on his vegan diet, Obama and Yoga". Integral Yoga Magazine. n.d. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
  28. ^ Bryant 2006, p. 199–202.
  29. ^ Tambs-Lyche 2018.
  30. ^ Desai 2008, p. 96.
  31. ^ Desai 2008, p. 97.
  32. ^ a b Lepes, Naina (2007). The Bhagavad Gita and inner transformation (1 ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 352–353. ISBN 978-81-208-3186-5.
  33. ^ Michael Keene (2002), Religion in Life and Society, Folens Limited, p. 122, ISBN 978-1-84303-295-3, retrieved May 18, 2009
  34. ^ Paul Insel (2013), Discovering Nutrition, Jones & Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 978-1284021165, page 231
  35. ^ Tähtinen, Unto (1976). Ahiṃsā: non-violence in Indian tradition. London: Rider. pp. 107–109. ISBN 978-0-09-123340-2.
  36. ^ Mahabharata 12.257 (note that Mahabharata 12.257 is 12.265 according to another count); Bhagavad Gita 9.26; Bhagavata Purana 7.15.7.
  37. ^ Sanford, A. Whitney (2013-04-03). "Gandhi's Agrarian Legacy: Practicing Food, Justice, and Sustainability in India". Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture. 7 (1): 65–87. doi:10.1558/jsrnc.v7i1.65. ISSN 1749-4915.
  38. ^ a b Nesbitt, Eleanor M. (2004). Intercultural education: ethnographic and religious approaches. The Sussex library of religious beliefs & practices. Brighton ; Portland: Sussex Academic Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 978-1-84519-033-0.
  39. ^ J. Gordon Melton (2011). Religious Celebrations: L-Z. ABC-CLIO. pp. 172–173. ISBN 978-1-59884-205-0.
  40. ^ B. V. Bhanu (2004). People of India: Maharashtra. Popular Prakashan. p. 851. ISBN 978-81-7991-101-3.
  41. ^ Narayanan, Vasudha. “The Hindu Tradition”. In A Concise Introduction to World Religions, ed. Willard G. Oxtoby and Alan F. Segal. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007
  42. ^ Williams, Raymond. An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. 1st. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. 159
  43. ^ Staples 2020, p. 26.
  44. ^ Jain 2011, p. 120–121.
  45. ^ Ridgwell and Ridgway (1987), Food Around the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0198327288, page 67[1]
  46. ^ Puskar-Pasewicz, Margaret, ed. (2010). Cultural encyclopedia of vegetarianism. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. p. 40[coastal south-western ]. ISBN 978-0313375569. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  47. ^ Speedy, Andrew W. (November 2003). "Global Production and Consumption of Animal Source Foods". The Journal of Nutrition. 133 (11): 4048S – 4053S. doi:10.1093/jn/133.11.4048S.
  48. ^ Pinkney 2018, Material Prasāda in Hindu Ritual.
  49. ^ Pinkney 2018, Prasāda in Śākta Contexts.
  50. ^ Ferro-Luzzi, G. Eichinger. “Food for the Gods in South India: An Exposition of Data.” Zeitschrift Für Ethnologie 103, no. 1 (1978): 86–108. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25841633.
  51. ^ Babb, L. A. (1975). The divine hierarchy: Popular Hinduism in central India. Columbia University Press.pages=137-139 [2]
  52. ^ Engfer, L (2004). Desserts around the world. Lerner Publications. p. 12. ISBN 9780822541653.
  53. ^ Taylor Sen, Colleen (2014). Feasts and Fasts A History of Indian Food. London: Reaktion Books. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-78023-352-9. Retrieved 10 June 2016.
  54. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 6.
  55. ^ "Hindu Fasting".
  56. ^ "Weekly Rituals in the Practice of Hinduism".
  57. ^ Arnott, Margaret L. (1975). Gastronomy : the anthropology of food and food habitys. The Hague: Mouton. p. 319. ISBN 978-9027977397. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
  58. ^ Walker, Harlan, ed. (1997). Food on the move : proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1996, [held in September 1996 at Saint Antony's College, Oxford]. Devon, England: Prospect Books. p. 291. ISBN 978-0-907325-79-6. Retrieved 31 October 2016.
  59. ^ Amaranth: Modern Prospects for an Ancient Crop. National Academies. 1984. p. 6. ISBN 9780309324458. NAP:14295.
  60. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 7.
  61. ^ Dalal 2010, p. 63.

Bibliography

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